As Jordyn Flows

[For my 11th grade term paper I embraced the idea to write about another influential female's work. Rachel Carson's best-seller "Silent Spring" and its contribution to the uprising of an environmental movement in the United States is my thesis. I took an interest into Carson's role after learning about her in my AP Environmental Class. Conducting research on this topic has not ony increased my understanding of history, but the environmental issues that still remain today. Spread the stewardship!].

Term Paper                                          The Queen of Green                                                    

In 1958 local chemical agencies massively sprayed DDT on Olga Owen Huckin’s property in Duxbury, MA without her consent. Within days, Huckins was appalled to witness the abrupt death of many birds in her private bird sanctuary. Huckins recalled observing the horrific effects in a letter to Rachel Carson, a friend and famed naturalist writer, “The few birds seen anywhere were moribund; they trembled violently and could not fly. It was a spring without voices.” [1] This occurrence provoked Carson to imagine living in an environment without these species. Carson was already skeptical of the danger of synthetic chemical pesticides such as DDT, which were heavily distributed during and after World War II for the purpose of killing mosquitoes and preventing the development of malaria. Huckin’s request for Carson to investigate this matter essentially motivated Carson to act on her own suspicion that the chemical industry’s “corporate greed” was killing the natural world. [2]  As a well-accomplished scientist, Carson investigated the consequences of widespread use of pesticides. She immersed herself in research by uncovering various scientific resources, all of which confirmed the direct correlation between the abundant spraying of DDT and the deaths of Huckin’s birds.  In 1962, Carson published Silent Spring, in which she emphasized consequences of misused pesticides and therefore alerted a large audience to view the environment as an interconnected system. Rachel Carson’s belief in environmental stewardship and her account of the harmful effects of pesticides on various ecosystems presented in her renowned novel Silent Spring served as a catalyst for environmental awareness and spawned a new movement. 

Growing up from humble beginnings in the small town of Springdale, Pennsylvania, Rachel Carson encountered her lifelong passions of nature and writing early in her youth. At the mere age of ten, Carson had submitted a story in a children’s literary magazine. When not reading or writing, Carson admired the nature surrounding her as she walked along the banks of the Allegheny River. Despite the limitations for females to specialize in science and being at an economic disadvantage, Carson received scholarships to study at Pennsylvania College for Women in 1929, and later at Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory. Carson continued to achieve academic excellence at John Hopkins University where she received her master’s degree in zoology in 1932.

Engrossed in her studies at John Hopkins University, Carson became infatuated with the ecology of the sea. In 1936, during the Great Depression, Carson luckily found a job combining her talent for writing with her newfound interest for ecology by writing radiocasts for the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries. Not only did she write radio scripts, but Carson published freelance articles about pollution in the Chesapeake Bay due to industrial runoff. She signed her published articles in the Sun as R. L. Carson in hope that she could convince readers the author, “was male and thus take her science seriously.” [3] Though it was only the beginning of her career, Carson’s distinct literary voice was viewed as a vehicle destined to change the status quo of stewardship. 

As only one of two females at the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Carson’s diligent work led to success in becoming Editor-in-Chief at the U.S Bureau of Fisheries (later known as the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service). Once crowned with this position in 1949, Carson was able to expand her scientific knowledge about different aspects of nature as well as the government’s policies that applied to them. Well known for her literary abilities, Carson published a “series on the new U.S wildlife refuge system.” [4] As Carson acquired a thorough understanding of her surroundings, her ideas to promote stewardship would be implanted in many minds.

As she became more established as a naturalist writer, Carson felt more confident to publish her full name on an upcoming novel. In 1951, The Sea Around Us received critics’ acclaim and book awards including the National Book Award.   Instantly, Carson became a literary celebrity for her eloquent prose and rare ability to engage non-scientific readers with her concise explanations of complex subject matters. Carson continued to remain in the limelight with her next novel, The Edge of the Sea, a best-seller that exemplified Carson’s literary skills yet again. Her readers understood the value of the environment, and in adopting Carson’s views a group of environmentalists was on the rise.

 In contrast to Carson’s supporters who were more than satisfied with her highly praised novels focusing on nature’s wonders, Carson was not pleased with a brewing environmental issue which she believed could destroy these same wonders. The extensive use of synthetic chemicals in order to protect crops from insects ignited Carson’s skepticism in 1954.  In her opinion, Carson believed these chemicals were “poisonous and biologically potent.” [5] As a professional working in science, a subject involving many uncertainties, Carson began researching the most popular of these pesticides—Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT).

Discovered in 1939, the pesticide DDT was universally used for multiple purposes. From the perspective of DDT consumers and producers, it was a panacea since it was cheap and protected agriculture crops from pest and weeds. DDT halted the transmission of insect-borne diseases, namely malaria, because it obliterated mosquitoes. Therefore, DDT was hailed as the "wonder insecticide of World War II"[6] since it protected American troops from these disease-carrying mosquitoes. In fact, DDT saved 50 million to 100 million lives by preventing the transmission of malaria. Having saved lives, the popularity of DDT spurred a boom in the chemical industry, representing America’s new found dependence on these second generation pesticides.

Chemists Paul Muller was awarded the Noble Prize in 1948 for discovering DDT. Though established as a safe synthetic chemical by the U.S. Public Health Service, this did not prevent Carson from researching this so called ‘miracle worker.’  Despite the fact that the world deemed DDT as a lifesaver, Carson believed that there was a dark side to this pesticide and its hydrocarbon counterparts. Carson viewed the massive spraying of DDT without citizen’s consent as a violation of citizen’s rights for “the obligation to endure gives us the right to know.” [7] Her awareness heightened about the dominance of DDT when she began to see the chemical’s long term effects on wildlife. Determined to challenge the status quo of both the government and society’s knowledge, Carson knew that it was her destiny in that she “must write this book.” [8]

 In 1962, Carson published her extensive research on the misuse of pesticides in Silent Spring. Carson’s novel heralded an alarming message that the world was unprepared to hear since DDT was collectively viewed as a multifaceted and beneficial pesticide.  Yet, this did not prevent her pro-environmentalist prose from being silent and unheard. Carson’s non-conformist attitude towards the excessive use of toxic chemicals would reverberate from the day Silent Spring was published. She not only advocated that DDT was harming the environment by creating pollution and killing animals, but also declared that the massive spraying of these synthetic chemicals was fatal to humans as well.

Scientific research and case studies presented in Silent Spring served as tangible evidence that supported Carson’s new terminology for these insecticides—“Biocides.”[9]  She informed the naïve public that these hydrocarbon chemicals were potential human carcinogens and, “…the sinister and little recognized partners of radiation in changing the very nature of the world—the very nature of its life.”[10] Once organisms or ecosystem were subjugated to the spraying of chemicals, these hydrocarbons continued to persist for two to fifteen years. The persistence of DDT made it simultaneously effective: both for controlling pests as well as harming non-targeted beneficial organisms. DDT becomes toxic when it undergoes bioaccumulation, a process in which, “a fat-soluble chemical, can accumulate to higher concentrations in the fatty tissues of animals.” [11] As DDT passes through a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT will be biologically magnified as well. As a result, organisms at lower trophic levels (phytoplankton) hold a lower concentration of DDT versus organisms at higher trophic levels within their food web (fish or humans) in take higher concentrations of DDT.

Furthermore, in Silent Spring Carson opined about the process of spraying as an endless spiral. Regardless of man’s desire to change nature through chemicals, this objective will never be fulfilled. She explained that man would always lose in the battle against insects:

Since DDT was released for civilian use, a process of escalation has been going on in which ever more toxic materials must be found. This has happened because insects, in a triumphant vindication of Darwin’s principle of the survival of fittest, have evolved super races immune to the particular insecticide used, hence a deadlier one has always been developed—and then a deadlier one after that. [12]

 

Instead, the presence of DDT only exacerbates the circumstances it has intended to change. Gene mutations arise in non-targeted species since chemicals alter the cellular processes of plants, animals, and thus humans who consume them.  In addition, the chemicals had consequences on the environment such as water contamination and air pollution. Carson expressed her concern over these implemented methods of destroying insects fearing that they might be counterproductive and destroy all forms of life.

In fact, Carson believed that the only area of concern for the government was the nation’s economy. The chemical industry’s profit from the massive distribution of pesticides created a sense of corporate greed and ignorance towards nature. Rather than protect the welfare of citizens, lucrative and unprotected spraying of pesticides was simply accepted in the post Cold War era, a period marked by social conformity and affluence. Carson’s prose concisely and powerfully highlighted the repercussions of this irresponsible mentality towards the consequences of DDT in Silent Spring. Both the chemical and agriculture industry’s everlasting reliance on these pesticides would have led to the eventual demise of the living world without Silent Spring, a revolutionary cornerstone of ecology.

Perhaps the only misconception that Carson held was that, “It would be unrealistic to believe that 1 book could bring a complete change." [13] Ironically, the magnitude of the public’s response to Silent Spring demonstrated that regardless of readers who supported or defied her beliefs, Caron’s words were significant. Her novel immediately became a best-seller. In September of 1962 a review in the New York Times stated, “Silent Spring is now noisy summer.”[14]

Silent Spring, both successful and controversial, separated the public (scientists, politicians, and policy makers) who embraced her mandate to save the environment from the chemical industry. Chemical manufacturers were highly opposed to Carson’s novel since they viewed her denunciation of chemicals as a “threat to booming pesticide sales and mounted a campaign to discredit her.”[15] Individuals in the chemical industry such as critical reviewers and scientists claimed her book was inaccurate due to her “selective and biased use of research findings” and in turn failed “to give a balanced account of the benefits of pesticides.”[16] Sexist insults were targeted against Carson, claiming that she lacked intelligence to understand the complexities of science since she was a female. While other opponents labeled the author as “an ignorant and hysterical woman who wanted to turn the earth over to insects.”[17] Overall, individuals who favored the chemical industry created multiple conspiracies, spending a quarter of a million dollars to present multiple cases against Carson. Hoping to prevent Silent Spring from becoming a detriment to the success of the chemical industry, opponents defended the credibility of pesticides by personally vilifying Carson. Some even argued that Carson was greedy as she used her novel to scare her readers and profit from book sales. 

Despite the numerous attacks against her, Carson remained strong and courageously defended her work with conviction. At age fifty-six, Carson countered her critics while maintaining the same eloquent voice she used in her writing. Furthermore, Carson’s readers were inspired by Silent Spring and supported Carson’s notion that human beings were a part of nature. As a result, her regard for stewardship was adopted by many of her readers.

Unknown to the public, Carson was internally battling breast cancer and unfortunately was unable to win this battle as well. Though she died only eighteen months after the release of her best-seller, she bared witness to the immediate affects of Silent Spring. Carson saw the beginnings of America’s new found concern with the natural world and the origins and the infancy of an environmental awareness movement. Carson exceeded the expectations that she held pertaining to the influence of Silent Spring—her labor of love. Soon after Carson’s death, her concerns for the natural world started to become integrated in America’s politics, morals, and education, all of which were representative of Carson’s profound message.  A novel which provoked such a national debate on the use of pesticides was destined to alter the “political landscape”[18] forever.

The Bill of Rights did not secure the protection of the environment against pesticides since, “our forefathers, despite their wisdom and foresight could conceive of no such problem.”[19] Legislation pertaining to stewardship was obsolete; but, Carson’s proponents saw an opportunity to utilize her foresight to diminish problematic issues. Further progress was made in society in that individuals expressed their need to not only protect the environment from pesticides, but simply from all of forces of destruction. Public pressure to protect the environment through policies prevailed shortly after Carson’s death in 1964 when Congress passed the Wilderness Act. Essentially, it protected, “undeveloped tracts of public land as part of the National Wilderness System.”[20] Moreover, in 1967, the Environmental Defense Fund was born, with a mandate, “to build a body of case law to establish citizen’s rights to a clean environment.”[21] In addition, ecology began to emerge as a popular science from 1965 to 1970 due to the media’s coverage on Carson and other advocates for stewardship. Aspects of ecology such as: population growth, pollution, resources, and endangered species were topics that would be integrated in legislation throughout the 1970’s.

Know as the first decade of the environment, the 1970’s encompassed, “increased awareness and public concern [that] led Congress to pass a number of laws to improve environmental quality and conserve more or the nation’s natural resources.”[22] On April 20, 1970 twenty million citizens participated in the first Earth Day, an annual celebration to protect the environment. During Richard Nixon’s presidency, the environmental movement continued to grow when Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, the primary federal organization which oversees all legislation pertaining to the protection of the environment. Shortly after, The Endangered Species Act of 1973 was put into action by the EPA in order to prevent species from becoming extinct.

A proponent for protecting the environment, President Jimmy Carter (between 1977 and 1981) convinced Congress to establish the Department of Energy to reduce the United State’s dependence on imported oil. Like Carson, Carter viewed this dependence as an aliment from an environmental and economic standpoint. The federal government became aware of other environmental issues such as habitat destruction, an issue that Carson believed to be never of great interest to Congress. The government’s new found moral responsibility to protect the nation’s nature became even more effective when Carter implemented the Superfund as part of the Comprehensive Environment Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. The Superfund served as a federal organization that was responsible to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites. Once again, Carter answered to the public concern and passed the Antiquities Act of 1906, which doubled “the amount of land in the National Wilderness and…the area in the National Park System.” [23] Carson’s and ideals for environmental justice presented in Silent Spring were invoked by President Carter and were the fundamentals of the numerous changes and innovations in the government’s role towards the environment. Her hopes such as protecting species and reducing pollution began to take on whole a new meaning in that they were becoming realities. 

Though developing countries are still permitted to use DDT to prevent the transmission of Malaria, this chemical and other chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides were banned throughout the United States and other developed countries in 1972. After the EPA amended the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the organization was in sole control of DDT regulations. In determining DDT as potent to the environment, as confidently expressed in Silent Spring, Carson’s warning of this chemical had evidently prevailed. Since 1972 the EPA has banned or restricted fifty-six pesticides ingredients that are potentially harmful. The Food Quality Act of 1996 (FQPA) which requires manufacturers to approve of the safety of their ingredients for children has also resulted due to the public’s increased concerned towards pesticides. DDT still continues to be the notorious villain along with eleven other chemicals, formally known as the dirty dozen, which were heavily restricted by developed nations as of 2000.  From pesticides to habitats, the existence of these policies and organizations are attributed to Silent Spring in that Carson’s message serves as the foundation for all of them. “It was Rachel Carson’s achievement to synthesize this knowledge into a single image that everyone, scientist and the general public alike, could easily understand.” [24]America gradually began to understand and hear Carson’s call with the release of her novel, and since then environmental awareness only continues to abound.

 In revealing the injustice she observed, Rachel Carson is still recognized and continues to be honored for Silent Spring. Carson posthumously received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1981 among other awards for her sacred, “well crafted, fearless, and succinct” text that became “the cornerstone of the new environmentalism.” [25] In 1999, Time named Carson as one of the "100 People of the Century" and in 2005 Silent Spring was established as one of the most influential books in the previous fifty years. She remains to be one of the greatest American nature writers and an iconic female figure in that her powerful words served as a catalyst that changed and challenged society. Carson possessed “a moral courage and sacred rage…to step forward and question every law, person, and practice” that denied justice towards nature. Without this novel, many believe that the environmental movement would have been delayed or non-existent since Carson’s motivating words led to environmental legislation.  

Above all, Carson’s Silent Spring embodies a debate that still remains to be well and alive today: “a reverence for life versus a reverence for power.”[26] Carson viewed men as part of nature and the various ecosystems throughout the world. Those in opposition to her believe that men are not nature’s counterparts, but rather nature’s controllers. Silent Spring urges generations to reflect on the preservation and their relation to their surroundings. Carson’s brilliance is a result of her insight and passion for the environment and; therefore, her courage to defend it from those in power who wanted to simplify nature. Silent Spring inspired the stewards of the nation to attempt to fulfill her dream. A Silent Spring will never exist if, “the more clearly we can focus our attention on the wonders and realities of the universe about us….” [27]