Term Paper
The Central Intelligence Agency was created, as an agency and an ethos, by the men who had planned and executed the secret war against Germany and Japan. These operators, virtually all veterans of the OSS, had seen the effects of resistance, sabotage, guerrilla war, propaganda, and the rest of the covert menu first-hand, and they had been impressed. [1]
Following World War II, (WWII), another war emerged that would redefine America’s role as a superpower–The Cold War. When the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was formed in the late 1940’s its sole purpose was to counteract Soviet intelligence and prevent the Soviet Union from spreading its communist ideals to the rest of the world. During the first 15-20 years of its existence, the CIA became involved in many covert operations around the world in attempts to overthrow left-wing parties or prevent them from coming into power. Through an examination of some of the CIA’s anti-communist activities during the period spanning 1948 to 1961, this paper will attempt to provide a better understanding of the evolution of the Agency, and the impact of these activities on the current US foreign policy.
The OSS (Office of Strategic Services) was established during the WWII era. However, it was short-lived, as President Harry S. Truman abolished it immediately after the war in fear of a new American Gestapo[2]. The CIA, its successor, was later created under the National Security Act of 1947[3], which also established the National Security Council, the Departments of War and Navy, and the Air Force. General Walter Bedell Smith was named the CIA’s first deputy director of central intelligence, (DDCI), under Sidney Souers, who was appointed as the first Director of Central Intelligence (DCI). The DCI also acted as advisor to the President on foreign intelligence, as it was linked to national security. The initial development of the CIA was fairly slow; the organization did not employ many workers and failed to meet many expectations. The organization remained small until the Korean War. By 1953, the number of CIA employees had grown to nearly 3,400 members[4] — this was largely attributed to the growing concerns of communist expansion, otherwise known as the period of the Red Scare[5].
The CIA gradually gained more power and resources, through which it was able to coordinate more successful operations. The CIA act of 1949 exempted the organization from expenditure limits of federal funds, while granting it power to preserve the confidentiality of many of its operations[6]. The empowerment of the CIA, financially as well as operationally, allowed the organization to operate through covert activities without being obliged to answer before Congress or other administrative bodies for the decisions made. It was during this time that the CIA embarked on its mission to rid the world of communist ideals; Radio-Free Europe was the first step.
Radio Free Europe, (RFE), was a broadcasting technique used by the U.S. that reached nearly all of Europe[7]. The radio station, established in 1949 as a tool against the Soviet empire, was used for major propaganda in an attempt to turn European nations against communism. Headquartered in Munich, Germany, the station was also broadcast in Eastern Europe, with its first short-waved program airing on July 4, 1950 in Czechoslovakia. RFE was available in 28 different languages[8]. The station operated on funds granted by the U.S. Congress — though these funds were routed through the CIA until 1971. Along with Radio Free Europe came the CIA’s first mission in a foreign country in an effort to topple a communist regime.
The Albanian dictator, Enver Hoxha, came into power following the liberation of Albania from fascist Italian-German occupation of WWII. As head of the communist party, and a former member of the Albanian resistance movement during the war, Hoxha’s popularity afforded him election as the first President of the Republic. His government, however, was one that strongly embraced Marxist ideals. In 1949, the Agency’s mission to overthrow his government was approved by President Truman. The mission was unsuccessful. The cause of failure was Kim Philby, a Soviet mole embedded in the British intelligence[9]. The operation resulted in the execution of many Albanian agents, who were involved with the mission in question, per Hoxha’s request. The first failed operation in Albania was indeed the first of its kind; this was the first time the CIA had infiltrated a country through the use of armed forces; different methodologies, however, were also employed in other operations.
An earlier U.S. involvement in the 1948 Italian Presidential Election swayed votes in favor of the Democratic Party. The CIA was successful in defeating communism in Italy through the use of soft power, or its ability to convince the Italian populace to want to do what the U.S. desired[10]. The Agency succeeded in educating Italian voters through information found in pamphlets and publications that revealed the evils of communism; some pamphlets read: “in Communist countries, children sent parents to jail.”[11] In the same year as the Albanian operation, American and British troops were sent to Greece in an attempt to suppress the communist rebels in the civil war that the country was enduring[12]. The operations in Greece as well as in Italy were a success for the CIA; these operations prevented pro-Soviet communist leaders from rising into power.
In 1954, another threat to democracy emerged, this time in Southeast Asia. Following the Philippines’s independence of 1946, the communist party succeeded in bringing about a revolt; the Hukbalahap Rebellion, or HUK Rebellion, was a communist revolt of peasants in Luzon, Philippines[13]. In 1950, the HUK Rebellion had acquired major support from its country and was on the cusp of a revolt to seize power. Following the arrest of major HUK officials by the Philippine government, President Truman authorized major military support for suppression of existing and potential communist uprisings. The HUK Rebellion was defeated and with it the communist influence in the Philippines[14]. Other notable efforts of the CIA include operations managed by George Kisevalter.
Kisevalter came from a wealthy Russian family in Saint Petersburg.
As a close friend of Tsar Nicholas II, George’s grandfather, Georgi Kisevalter served as the Minister of Finance[15]. In 1914, however, with the eruption of war between Russia and the German Central Powers, George’s father, Georgi Georgievich, then a member of the Tsar army, was tasked with a mission to purchase weapons in the U.S[16]. They did not foresee the Bolshevik Revolution, which resulted in the dethronement of Tsar Nicholas II, following a civil war that lasted three years. In 1922, Vladimir Lenin assumed power in Russia, inaugurating the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (U.S.S.R.), which came to include Russia as well as other countries in Eurasia[17].As a result of this, the Kisevalters were forced to remain in the U.S., and eventually obtain full U.S. citizenship. As an honor student, George Kisevalter enrolled at Dartmouth College in 1926, where he majored in engineering. Following his father’s death in 1941, he was drafted into the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering. His skill-set afforded him assignments that included work on Soviet intelligence. Shortly thereafter, he became one of a select few to interview Reinhard Gehlen, a general in Hitler’s army[18].
As a fluent speaker of the German language, Kisevalter was able to fully and successfully interview Gehlen about his knowledge of Soviet intelligence:
What we want from you is all of the information that you have on the Soviets, so that we can match it with the information we have. There is nothing militarily that you are to do. We are not going to fight them or anything like that. We just want intelligence. You are an intelligence officer. Everything is at your disposal. Will you provide us with the information we want?[19]
In response to Kisevalter’s interrogation, Gehlen provided intelligence that would prove to be vital in the war against the Axis powers. Kisevalter soon became a valuable asset to U.S. intelligence; his fluency in German and Russian, and his ability to comfort and befriend prisoners of war brought the intelligence community much success in its operations[20].
Among Kisevalter’s first works was the management of intelligence provided by Soviet agent Pyotr Semyonovich Popov, who defected in 1952. Until 1958, Kisevalter acted as Popov’s handler in Vienna. During this time, Popov supplied the U.S. with substantial invaluable information on Soviet intelligence and military plans. Due to the amount of information that was leaked, however, Popov was inevitably caught and executed[21]. Two years later, Kisevalter joined forces with the British MI-6 to supervise Oleg Penkovskiy, another Soviet officer, who was regarded as “the most successful spy in CIA history.”[22] Penkovskiy would also provide substantial information on Soviet nuclear missiles and their capabilities. Vital intelligence, which Kisevalter assisted in collecting from Penkovskiy, helped resolve the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962; “The history of the crisis is well known. [It was during this time] that the world came to the brink of a nuclear holocaust.”[23] The crisis resulted from an unexpected deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba, following the failed U.S. operation to overthrow the communist government of Cuba. Through such work during the Cold War, George Kisevalter came to be regarded as one of the most prominent figures in the evolution of the CIA. Other important operations of this time include the CIA’s involvement in Iran in 1953.
Operation Ajax was the codename for the mission of the CIA and the British intelligence to overthrow the Iranian government[24]. Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh, a left-wing sympathizer, was elected into office shortly after the assassination of Prime Minister Ali Razmara, who was regarded by many as a pro-Western leader[25]. Mossadegh was considered to be a threat to global democracy. During his first days in office, Mossadegh introduced policies such as the nationalization of the oil industry, which would minimize western influence in Iran. The British government persuaded the U.S. administration of President Eisenhower to act against an imminent threat of communism in Iran; Operation Ajax was born. Led by CIA senior operative, Kermit Roosevelt, Jr., the operation was carefully detailed to infiltrate Iran and topple the established government of Mossadegh using guerilla warfare. The Shah would then be endorsed as their leader, who would ultimately be under the power of General Fazlollah Zahedi; the U.S. and Britain had carefully chosen General Zahedi for his pro-Western philosophies[26]. The operation failed, forcing the Shah to flee to Eastern Europe. Convinced that a communist Iran posed a credible threat to global democracy, however, U.S. and British operatives returned to Iran with the same intentions for a second time. The operation was a success. Zahedi was named Prime Minister and Mossadegh was arrested, tried, and sentenced to death[27]. The success of Operation Ajax made the CIA as well as the U.S. more confident in their operations; just one year later their fight against communism would take place in Guatemala.
The CIA undertook two consecutive operations to counter the communist spread in Guatemala. Operation PBFortune[28] was conceived under the presumption that the administration of Jacob Arbenz of Guatemala posed a communist threat to the western hemisphere. The operation, outlined in 1951, was not executed until September of 1952[29]. The operation, which was designed to activate rebel groups within the country, was well funded by the CIA. Although well orchestrated, the operation did not succeed; information about the operation had been leaked, and the due to growing tensions between the U.S. and other Central American countries, U.S. involvement had to be concealed. Thus, Operation PBFortune was immediately aborted. Determined to end communist influence in Guatemala, however, the CIA would soon follow with Operation PBSuccess.
The democratically-elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, was considered to be strengthening ties with the communist world, as a result of his socialist policies. Guzmán’s arms trade with Czechoslovakia, a communist country, proved sufficient for the CIA to become involved, once again in the Guatemala[30]. Now, under the Eisenhower administration, the CIA began to employ different tactics under Operation PBSuccess. The Agency convinced Guatemalan businesses to boycott trade with other countries, thereby severely damaging the Guatemalan economy. Soft power, once again persuaded the local people to rise up against their own government. Propaganda, such as public anti-government radio broadcasts and mass publication of pamphlets, which disclosed the evils of Guzmán proved effective[31]. In June 1954, guerilla forces invaded the country; although initially met with heavy resistance, the forces prevailed with the help of the U.S., Mexico and the Honduras. Guzmán stepped down as leader and the communist threat in Guatemala came to an end. Although a successful operation, PBSuccess[32] would come to define an example of American imperialism and unwanted intervention in foreign countries, by Central American countries in years to come, the result of which inhibited U.S. intervention in other countries that desired change.
Communist leadership in Hungary was not like that of many other countries; the leadership was not one elected by the people. Following the end of WWII the Soviet Union established a stronghold in Eastern Europe, through acquisition of many satellite countries, which it received for the creation of a buffer zone for protection against invasion through Europe.[33] Although Hungary remained a sovereign state in the sense that it did not become annexed territory of the U.S.S.R., its political structure was heavily influenced by the Soviet Union as a satellite country. Through the support of the Hungarian Communist Party, and the backing of the U.S.S.R., Matyas Rakosi became the first communist leader to rule the country. Much like Joseph Stalin, Russia’s communist dictator, Rakosi ruled with an iron fist; he embraced the communist doctrine, and established himself as a relentless authoritarian, responsible for the execution of thousands of Hungary’s political dissidents[34]. Hungary’s economy also suffered, as a result of pro-Soviet policies, such as prohibition of trade with the US and financial dues paid to the Soviet Union for help with its post WWII debt. Following Stalin’s death, however, Rakosi was forced to step down, as a result of the denunciation of the Stalinist regime by his successor, Nikita Khrushchev[35].
The period of political transition in the Soviet Union, under Khrushchev, prepared the ground for political unrest in Hungary. Publications of mistakes under Rakosi’s administration became increasingly popular, and with such criticism of the leadership. In 1956 riots and mobs poured through the streets of Hungary in protest against the government[36]. An anti-Stalinist speech was broadcast through Radio-Free Europe, urging Hungarians to revolt against the communist regime, and in late October of that year the communist government of the new leader, Erno Gero, was on the brink of collapse. The role of the CIA was limited to the dissemination of propaganda, however, resisting the use of armed forces. Shortly thereafter, however, the Soviet Union intervened militarily, with casualties amounting to 7,000 Soviets and 30,000 Hungarians[37]. The Soviet Red Army destroyed all hopes of a successful revolution, delivering a crushing blow to the U.S. and all pro-Western nations. The effects of a failed revolution as a result of Soviet intervention fueled U.S. aspirations to end communist spread in the western hemisphere through the use of both propaganda as well as armed forces[38].
In 1960, President John F. Kennedy authorized Operation Mongoose, also known as the “Cuban Project,” which included several plans and operations to weaken and overthrow the communist government of Cuba[39]. Plans included an invasion by armed Cuban exiles, military/air support by U.S. forces, and assassination plans for the communist leader of Cuba, Fidel Castro. Plans for assassination included different methods, ranging from poison to exploding cigars to a public execution, none of which were carried out[40]. One of the most well funded and well orchestrated of these operations had disastrous results. What came to be known as the Bay of Pigs was an operation that was designed to be initiated by armed Cuban exiles, who would start a revolution, and later receive air support from U.S. forces[41]. Due to leaked information, however, the operation was aborted after the Cuban exiles had already been deployed; their attempt to start a revolution was met by heavy resistance, and most of these individuals were executed. Determined to topple the communist government, however, the CIA prepared yet another operation, which was set to begin in October 1962. As a result of the rapidly deteriorating U.S.-Cuban relations, however, Castro had permitted the deployment of Soviet Missiles into inland Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis, which ended with the Soviet retraction of the missiles, prevented all future U.S. operations in Cuba, leaving Castro’s communist administration in tact[42].
While the tactics and methods employed by the CIA during the period between 1948 and 1961 varied greatly, one common theme runs throughout all the examples listed in this paper; all CIA operations were attempting to further U.S. foreign policy goals, not define them. In Reinhold Niebuhr’s words, prior to the Cold War, the United States was considered to be at a peaceful state of mind: “We lived for a century not only in the illusion but in the reality of innocence.”[43] In the aftermath of WWII, however, the U.S. emerged as a world superpower, growing increasingly sensitive to foreign affairs and becoming increasingly involved on the world stage. The creation and operations of the CIA for the purpose of combating Soviet intelligence and Soviet spread attest to the fact that the U.S. had no intention of letting the world fall under communist rule. This, in turn, established the U.S. as a much more authoritarian and imperial power in the eyes of many world actors. U.S. foreign policy and U.S. involvement, through the works of the CIA in foreign countries became much more stringent and visible during the Cold War, was particularly evident between 1948 and 1961; in some instances, it was successful, and in others, only empowered Soviet rule. The activities of the CIA from the 1940s through the early 1960s have reshaped American foreign policy and also America’s image through the rest of the world. America has changed greatly as a result of the Cold War, but its biggest and most obvious change has been in how it handles foreign issues. Without question, the CIA played a central role in the execution of U.S. foreign policy goals around the world during these first years of the Cold War. Since the end of the Cold War, the U.S. has continued to intervene in foreign countries, militarily, or through CIA covert operations, for the protection of world democracy, and the interest of its people. These interventions include military as well as CIA operations, such as: Operation Desert Storm in Iraq and Kuwait in 1991[44]; CIA support to the Mujahadeen in Afghanistan during the early 1990’s[45]; CIA intervention in El Salvador in 1994[46]; CIA support and military intervention in Haiti in 1994[47]; military intervention in the form of Operation Enduring Freedom Afghanistan in 2001[48], and most recently military intervention in Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003[49]. Through excursions such as these, with the exception of Afghanistan in 2001, the U.S. has continued on a path of interventionism – a path started with the beginning of the Cold War, and the creation of the CIA.
[1] Nutter, John J, The CIA’s Black Ops: Covert Action, Foreign Policy, and Democracy (New York: Prometheus Books, December 1999) 31.
[2] Trento, Joseph, The Secret History of the CIA (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishing, December 2004) 31.
[3] Nuter 90.
[4] Blum, William, Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II (New York: Common Courage Press, 1995) 24-25.
[5] Nutter 47.
[6] Trento 121.
[7] Nutter 88.
[8] Nutter 89.
[9] Blum 56.
[10] Nye, Joseph S, The Paradox of American Power: Why the World’s Only Superpower Can’t Go It Alone (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002) 9.
[11] Blum 28.
[12] Blum 34.
[13] Blum, William, Freeing the World To Death (New York: Common Courage Press, September 2004) 94.
[14] Blum, Freeing the World to Death, 96.
[15] Ashley, Clarence, CIA Spymaster, (Louisiana: Pelican Publishing Co, 2004) 29-30.
[16] Ashley 47.
[17] Blum, Killing Hope, 47.
[18] Ashley 61.
[19] Ashley 62.
[20] Ashely 78.
[21] Ashley 134.
[22] Ashley 142.
[23] Escalante, Fabian, The Cuba Project: CIA Covert Operations 1959-62 (New York: Ocean Press, June 2004) 122.
[24] Gasiorowski, Mark J and Malcolm Byren, Mohammed Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, (New York: Syracuse University Press, May 2004) 15.
[25] Gasiorowski 27.
[26] Gasiorowski 173.
[27] Gasiorowski 224.
[28] Cullather, Nick, Secret History: The CIAs Classified Account of Its Operations in Guatemala 1952-1954, (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, October 2006) 40.
[29] Cullather 44.
[30] Cullather 62.
[31] Cullather 122.
[32] Cullather 47.
[33] Satellite Nations were politically and economically controlled by the U.S.S.R.; Nutter 261.
[34] Trento 165.
[35] Gasiorowski, Mark J, Neither East nor West: Iran, The Soviet Union, and The United States, (New York:Yale Publishing Press, September 1990) 205.
[36] Blum, Killing Hope, 144.
[37] Blum, Killing Hope, 146.
[38] Nutter 125.
[39] Escalente 98.
[40] Escalente 115.
[41] Escalente 37.
[42] Escalente 135.
[43] Nye 24.
[44] Blum, Freeing the World to Death, 278.
[45] Nye 59.
[46] Blum, Killing Hope, 352.
[47] Blum, Killing Hope, 370.
[48] Nye 62.
[49] Nye 154.